It is widely accepted that any effects of coffee consumption on reproductive health are likely to be linked to caffeine rather than to coffee consumption per se.
Hence the majority of the published work focuses on the effects of caffeine, not coffee, consumption.
Recent cohort studies and meta-analyses have reported that moderate maternal caffeine intake is not significantly associated with increased risks of gestational diabetes mellitus, gestational hypertension, or preeclampsia, although higher intake levels have been linked to anaemia, preterm birth, and low birth weight in some populations. The authors acknowledged that evidence from human studies remains heterogeneous and often inconclusive5.
However, a 2024 review suggested associations between maternal caffeine intake and pregnancy loss, low birth weight, cardiac and genital abnormalities, higher body mass and neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral outcomes. The observed effects often varied by intake level. The authors acknowledged that further well-designed studies were required6.
