- A 2021 meta-analysis concluded that caffeine consumption is unlikely to be related to the incidence or the risk of developing new onset atrial fibrillation, and may offer a protective effect. Furthermore, to date any mechanisms for protective or causative effects of caffeine remain speculative27
- A further 2022 study, using UK Biobank data, concluded that a U-shaped relationship was observed between coffee intake and incident arrhythmia, suggesting that the lowest risk was observed at 2-3 cups per day10